Defence and intraspecific combat
Certain Procellariiformes species have the ability to repel predators with an unpleasant stomach oil, while certain species of pitohuis from New Guinea possess potent neurotoxins in their skin and feathers. A few other species are able to defend themselves chemically against predators. [125].
Although our knowledge is limited due to a lack of field observations, intraspecific conflicts have been known to occasionally result in harm or death. [126] A sharp spur on the wing is used as a weapon by the screamers (Anhimidae), nine species of lapwing (Vanellus), some jacanas (Jacana, Hydrophasianus), the spur-winged goose (Plectropterus), and the torrent duck (Merganetta). A bony knob on the alular metacarpal is used by the steamer ducks (Tachyeres), geese and swans (Anserinae), the solitaire (Pezophaps), sheathbills (Chionis), certain guans (Crax), and stone curlews (Burhinus) to punch and hammer their opponents. [126] The radius of the jacanas Actophilornis and Irediparra is enlarged and resembles a blade. The unique features of the extinct Xenicibis included an elongated forelimb and a large hand that probably served as a jointed club or flail during combat or defense. For example, swans may use their bony spurs to attack and bite to protect their eggs or young. [126].
Resting and roosting”Roosting” redirects here. For other uses, see
Birds’ high metabolic rates during the day’s active hours are complemented by rest periods. Vigilant sleep is a type of sleep that sleeping birds frequently employ. It consists of rest intervals punctuated by brief “peeks” that open their eyes, making them sensitive to disturbances and enabling them to quickly flee from danger. [200] It is thought that swifts can slumber while in the air, and radar data indicates that when they are roosting, they align themselves to face the wind. [201] There have been rumors that some types of sleep could be achievable while flying. [202].
Additionally, certain birds have shown that they can induce slow-wave sleep by focusing on one side of their brain at a time. The birds typically use this ability based on where they are in relation to the flock’s outside. By observing the flock’s outer edges, the eye across from the sleeping hemisphere might be able to stay alert for predators. This adaptation is also known from marine mammals. [203] Because communal roosting reduces body heat loss and predator-related risks, it is a common practice. [204] Safety and thermoregulation are major considerations when selecting nesting locations. [205] Large herbivores on the African savanna that oxpeckers use are examples of unusual mobile roost sites. [206].
While some birds nestle their beaks among their breast feathers, many slumbering birds bend their heads over their backs and tuck their bills in their back feathers. Many birds perch on one leg, but in particularly chilly climates, some may tuck their legs up into their feathers. Birds that perch have a mechanism called tendon-locking that helps them stay attached to their perch while they sleep. Many ground birds roost in trees, including pheasants and quails. A few Loriculus parrots with their roost hanging upside down [207] Some hummingbirds experience a nocturnal torpor that is accompanied by a decrease in their metabolic rates. [208] Almost a hundred other species, such as woodswallows, nightjars, and owlet-nightjars, exhibit this physiological adaptation. A particular species, the common poorwill, even goes into hibernation. [209] Since they lack sweat glands, birds can lose water through their skin and can cool themselves by standing in water, moving to the shade, panting, fluttering their throats, increasing their surface area, or employing specialized behaviors like urohidrosis. [210][211].
Flocking and other associations
Some birds can form large flocks, but others are essentially territorial or only live in small family groups. The two main advantages of flocking are enhanced foraging efficiency and safety in numbers. [77] In closed habitats like forests, where ambush predation is common and multiple eyes can serve as an invaluable early warning system, defense against predators is especially crucial. This has resulted in the formation of numerous mixed-species feeding flocks, which are typically made up of a small number of different species; while these flocks offer safety in numbers, they also raise the possibility of resource competition. [195] The bullying of socially inferior birds by dominant birds and, in certain situations, decreased feeding efficiency are among the costs associated with flocking. [196] Some species have a mixed system in which young or unmated birds live in flocks where they find mates before establishing territories, and breeding pairs maintain territories. [197].
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